VLPs are dispersed nanomaterials that can be produced in a variety of systems, including mammals, plants, insects, and bacteria. Viral-like particles (VLPs) are nanoscale structures made up of assembled viral proteins that lack viral genetic material and are therefore non-infectious. Recent advances in the production and fabrication of VLPs including the exploration of different types of expression systems for their development, as well as their applications as vaccines in the prevention of infectious diseases and cancers resulting from their interaction with, and mechanism of activation of, the humoral and cellular immune systems are discussed in this review. The development of more effective and targeted forms of VLP by modification of the surface of the particles in such a way that they can be introduced into specific cells or tissues or increase their half-life in the host is likely to expand their use in the future. VLPs have also recently received attention for their successful applications in targeted drug delivery and for use in gene therapy. VLPs that are classified as subunit vaccines are subdivided into enveloped and non- enveloped subtypes both of which are discussed in this review article. However, there are still many challenges to this surface display system that need to be addressed in the future. VLPs are highly immunogenic and are able to elicit both the antibody- and cell-mediated immune responses by pathways different from those elicited by conventional inactivated viral vaccines.
VLPs are gaining in popularity in the field of preventive medicine and to date, a wide range of VLP-based candidate vaccines have been developed for immunization against various infectious agents, the latest of which is the vaccine against SARS-CoV-2, the efficacy of which is being evaluated. Expression and self-assembly of the viral structural proteins can take place in various living or cell-free expression systems after which the viral structures can be assembled and reconstructed.
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Finally, scientific reports should be free of ‘spin’: overoptimistic reporting of the results and conclusions, or making inferences that cannot be made.Virus-like particles (VLPs) are virus-derived structures made up of one or more different molecules with the ability to self-assemble, mimicking the form and size of a virus particle but lacking the genetic material so they are not capable of infecting the host cell.
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All statistical analyses, including the software packages used and models or tests used, should be reported in such a way that a colleague can replicate them. All interventions and measurements done on these subjects should be reported in such a way that a colleague will be able to replicate them. That means that the origin of the study subjects – being humans, mice, cells, study reports, etc – should be reported, including selection criteria. Also, for each step in the research design, all details should be reported. For example, reporting of methods and results should be complete, and not limited to the positive results only. But some principles are true for each and every design. A reporting guidelines exists for almost every specific research design. More than 500 reporting guidelines can be found through the website of the Equator network ( ). Reporting the study in an unbiased and usable way can be achieved through the use of reporting guidelines.